Impact of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Research Paper

Impact of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - Research Paper Example 2005) Due to this Fatal Alcohol Syndrome, children that are born are mostly with less dramatic physical defects but with many of the same behavioral and psychosocial characteristics as those with FAS. Fatal Alcohol Effects are often thought of as lower on a continuum than FAS, but this is not correct. Many individuals with FAE, while looking quite normal, have significant deficits in their intellectual, behavioral, and social abilities which prevent them from leading normal lives. About forty-four percent of women who drink heavily during pregnancy will have a child with Fatal Alcohol Syndrome. Of the other fifty-six percent, some will have Fatal Alcohol Effects, be Fatal Alcohol exposed, to minor learning and behavioral difficulties. A few will be normal apparently. (. (Tubman, 1993). Impacts of FAS on Children: There are certain factors which determine that whether the child will be affected with FAS or FAE. The first factor will be the genetic makeup of the mother and the fetus. I t has been observed that many people of a certain population have similar genetic compositions. From various studies and researches, it has been suggested that for example if some individuals of Native American descent do not make enough of an enzyme necessary in the breakdown of alcohol in the liver or some are lacking that enzyme all together, then these individuals would be at genetic risk of passing this trait onto the fetus. A mother's nutritional status and physical well-being might also play roles of varying significance in determining whether an infant is affected, and to what degree, by the prenatal exposure to alcohol. A vivid research is necessary to determine the reason that some developing fetuses are more vulnerable to prenatal exposure to alcohol than others. The knowledge base in this arena needs to be greatly expanded. There is a continuum of effects that can result from maternal prenatal consumption of alcohol. (Olsen and Tuntiseranee 1995). The most common effect that is observed is a rise in the degree of spontaneous abortions which in other word also known as miscarriages. Babies can born with low birth weight, low birth length, and with a small head circumference resulting from prenatal alcohol exposure. Some of the other effects caused by maternal drinking ranges from an increase in the number of stillbirths, an increase in the number of birth defects, increased developmental delays to Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and an increased death rate. If a child needs to be diagnosed for FAS, then the child must have a distinct pattern of facial dysmorphia, growth problems, and evidence of abnormality in his central nervous system (CNS). (Beattie et al. 1983; Caley et al. 2005) Facial Dysmorphia: For diagnosing facial dysmorphia, three facial characteristics are required which is a smooth philtrum, a thin vermillion, and a small palpebral fissures based on racial norms. (Connolly-Ahern and Broadway, 2008). Growth Problems : A diagnosis of a child suffe ring from FAS requires confirmation of growth deficits including prenatal or postnatal height or weight, or both, at or below the 10th percentile, documented at any one point in time adjusted for age, sex, gestational age, race or ethnicity.( Connolly-Ahern and Broadway, 2008). CNS Abnormalities: There are three categories on which children with FAS have been diagnosed. One of them is structural abnormalities which consist

The pursuit of sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The pursuit of sexuality - Essay Example Sexual objectification, the act of treating a person as a mere instrument of sexual gratification, is perhaps the single most dominant and recurring theme in gender studies; in this regard, sexual objectification entails disregarding a person’s dignity, or personality, and often takes place at the societal level. Feminists have always regarded the concept of sexual objectification, especially women objectification, not only as intolerable, but also as a significant cause of gender inequalities in society (Papadaki, 2007 p.330). The concept of sexual objectification has always been a contentious issue that has fascinated critics over the years, especially in areas such as sexual ethics and philosophies of sex, leading to varied views regarding the origins of sexual objectification. Social commentators have recently observed that many women in contemporary societies often objectify themselves as a sign of their found freedoms and empowerment over their male counterparts. Other s ocial commentators have also argued that men too, have fallen victims of objectification in contemporary societies due to the increased freedom for women, gay and bisexual men in society. However, social commentators also agree that sexual objectification, particularly of women, has origins in the intricate relationship between the genders in society; in this case, because gender roles are social constructs, gender plays a very significant role in the sexual objectification of women. Women have been the unfortunate victims of objectification over the years because society has often looked down upon their personal and intellectual abilities and capabilities of females. Many societies have unintentionally reduced the worth or role of women to that of a mere object or instrument of sexual pleasure to be used for the entertainment of the men. Pervasive sexual images of women have often dominated the mainstream media such as advertising, and art in general (Harper & Tiggemann 2008, p.649 ), and the sexually oriented depictions of the female gender have enforced the gendered objectification of the women even further. The role of gender in the objectification of women debate stems from the fact that women have often perceived themselves based on what labels they have been given in society; in that respect, women have often been judged based on their gendered social roles, which are typically feminine in nature, and based on their sexual attractiveness. Conventionally, looks or beauty in women have always been glorified over everything else because gender roles assigned to women are heavily dependent on their sexual attractiveness; beauty pageants or contests have focused on aesthetics as a bottom line for judging the worth of women. In this regard, the conventional gender roles assigned to females by virtue of their sexuality have led to the pervasive objectification of women in society. For this reason, women have traditionally been judged and valued based on their p hysical attributes; women’s understanding of the importance of their sexuality has pushed them to seek further enhancements of their sexual attractiveness through a variety of methods. By disregarding women’s capabilities and achievements in fields where men dominate because they are perceived to be exclusively masculine,

Ethical and Legal Issues in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethical and Legal Issues in Nursing - Essay Example Cardiac nursing is a nursing specialty that deals with patients who suffer from different cardiovascular system conditions such as congestive heart failure, cardiac dysrhythmia, coronary artery disease and cardiomyopathy among others. In the course of work, nurses are subject to a number of ethical and legal issues. This is because their professional duties can be very challenging; there are ethical and legal implications in nearly if not all aspects of their duties. It is in the light of this fact that ethical and legal frameworks have been set up in order to provide moral and practical guidelines that influences nursing decisions. Ethical frameworks are established by the American Nurses Association Code of Nursing Ethics and to an extent by personal and societal values thereby influencing ethical decisions by nurses. According to the American Nurses Association [ANA] (2011), the first provision of Code of Ethics is that, all nurses in their professional relationships should practi ce respect and compassion for the inherent worth, individual’s uniqueness, and dignity regardless of the personal attributes, nature of health problems, or socio-economic status of the individual. The first ethical issue that arises from this provision is the principle of patient autonomy. This principle assumes that a patient is in a position to understand what a given intervention involves and therefore in a position to refuse or consent to it the American Heart Association [AHA] (2005). Unless they are declared incompetent by a court of law or they are incapacitated, adult patients are presumed to have the ability to make decisions. The patient must be in a position to decide and choose various alternatives available and should relate the decision to values’ stable framework. AHA advises that in an event that the preferences of the patients are uncertain, emergency conditions should be treated first until the clarification for the preferences are made. Additionally, ANA (2011) notes, the patient’s interests are primary. Therefore, it raises the ethical issue of advance directives, living wills, and patient self- determination. An advance directive allows the patient to express his or her wishes and thoughts regarding his or her end- of- life care. They can be based on living wills, attorney’s durable powers for health care, written directives or conversations. A living will relates to patient’s direction to physicians about the medical care to be approved if he or she becomes terminally ill hence unable to make decisions. It is important to note that advance directives and living wills should be considered periodically since the medical conditions and patient’s desires may change over time AHA (2005). Apart from the laid- down ethical frameworks, personal and societal values play a critical role in influencing ethical decision- making especially among the cardiac nurses. The fundamental values of nursing include pre vention of suffering, equality among patients and human dignity. As such personal and societal values should be in tandem with this values; failure of which may lead to nursing ethics being compromised. Therefore, personal values that are derived from education, field of expertise, personal attributes, and culture should be geared towards adhering to nursing ethics. Personal values such as responsibility, intelligence, and honesty among others determine the ethical decisions by nurses. If these personal values

The pursuit of sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The pursuit of sexuality - Essay Example Sexual objectification, the act of treating a person as a mere instrument of sexual gratification, is perhaps the single most dominant and recurring theme in gender studies; in this regard, sexual objectification entails disregarding a person’s dignity, or personality, and often takes place at the societal level. Feminists have always regarded the concept of sexual objectification, especially women objectification, not only as intolerable, but also as a significant cause of gender inequalities in society (Papadaki, 2007 p.330). The concept of sexual objectification has always been a contentious issue that has fascinated critics over the years, especially in areas such as sexual ethics and philosophies of sex, leading to varied views regarding the origins of sexual objectification. Social commentators have recently observed that many women in contemporary societies often objectify themselves as a sign of their found freedoms and empowerment over their male counterparts. Other s ocial commentators have also argued that men too, have fallen victims of objectification in contemporary societies due to the increased freedom for women, gay and bisexual men in society. However, social commentators also agree that sexual objectification, particularly of women, has origins in the intricate relationship between the genders in society; in this case, because gender roles are social constructs, gender plays a very significant role in the sexual objectification of women. Women have been the unfortunate victims of objectification over the years because society has often looked down upon their personal and intellectual abilities and capabilities of females. Many societies have unintentionally reduced the worth or role of women to that of a mere object or instrument of sexual pleasure to be used for the entertainment of the men. Pervasive sexual images of women have often dominated the mainstream media such as advertising, and art in general (Harper & Tiggemann 2008, p.649 ), and the sexually oriented depictions of the female gender have enforced the gendered objectification of the women even further. The role of gender in the objectification of women debate stems from the fact that women have often perceived themselves based on what labels they have been given in society; in that respect, women have often been judged based on their gendered social roles, which are typically feminine in nature, and based on their sexual attractiveness. Conventionally, looks or beauty in women have always been glorified over everything else because gender roles assigned to women are heavily dependent on their sexual attractiveness; beauty pageants or contests have focused on aesthetics as a bottom line for judging the worth of women. In this regard, the conventional gender roles assigned to females by virtue of their sexuality have led to the pervasive objectification of women in society. For this reason, women have traditionally been judged and valued based on their p hysical attributes; women’s understanding of the importance of their sexuality has pushed them to seek further enhancements of their sexual attractiveness through a variety of methods. By disregarding women’s capabilities and achievements in fields where men dominate because they are perceived to be exclusively masculine,

Experience Essay Example for Free

Experience Essay I personally believe that a persons field of experience plays a very pivotal role in defining who that person is. With that in mind, there are definitely countless experiences and accomplishments that made me who I am. It is said that a persons field of experience is the sum of all experiences that have ever happened to that person since birth. As such, the things that make me who I am are the people I meet, the things I am exposed to every day, and the things that I do. In my life, I continuously meet new people. These people help form me. Whenever I meet someone, especially if I get to know them well enough, that person leaves his or her mark on me. Friends, family, and strangers have all contributed to my edification. The kindness I see in some of them make me realize that if you are nice to people, they will, more often than not, reciprocate your kindness. Likewise, the blind idealism Ive seen in some of them made me understand that the world is not a place full of sunshine and rainbows. I once had a friend who was going through a very difficult time in his life. I saw him suffer at the hands of typhoon Ondoy. The next time I saw him, he was practically homeless. His grades plummeted and he told me he kept seeing flashes of the flood happening again and again. I assumed there was no hope for him. I thought he was falling in a downward spiral. That taught me life isnt always fair. Sometimes we go through hardships that we have done nothing to deserve, but, as the days went by, I saw that same person get back on his feet, beat the odds, and persevere despite what he went through. This taught me that, no matter what happens, we must remember that God will always be with us, and His grace abounds. The things I am exposed to every day can be anything from what I read, what I see on a billboard, or even what I smell on the way to the cafeteria. These things help me stimulate my thoughts and reach certain realizations that help in my formation. For example, when I was at Lake Tahoe, I remember seeing a snowflake fall on my hand. When I was staring at my garden at home, I saw a petal from a flower fall down to the floor. Those things didnt mean anything to me then, but just recently, I understood that they can mean so much more. Something as beautiful as a snowflake or flower petal falling only lasts so long. The snowflake melts, and the petal withers and dies. It made me realize that the best things in life are simply the fleeting moments that come and go in a blink of an eye. That only means we need to enjoy the falling of the snowflake or the petal even more, and we can always wait for the next one to fall. My actions have caused me both great joy and deep sorrow. There are things I regret doing and there are opportunities I have missed. Despite it all, I still say the both the things I have done, and things I could have but didnt do all contributed to my current self. If even one decision Ive ever made or action Ive ever done, no matter how seemingly insignificant, was changed, I probably wouldnt be who I am today. If I decided not to go with my grandmother to the hospital; if didnt suggest that she go take the helpers home and leave me there; even if I decided to stop by 7-Eleven on my way up the stairs to buy a Coke, I wouldnt have been the only one there to see my great-aunt die. If I didnt experience that, I would definitely be different. How I would have turned out, I do not know. All I know is whatever I do or dont do contributes to my field of experience. Our fields of experience make us who we are. Everything that weve ever been through makes us who we are. Everything we see, everything we feel, every person we meet, and everything that we do help define us. As our life goes on, we continuously change. Minds broaden or narrow. Skills may sharpen or dull. Ideas may spark to life or wither and die. It is up to us whether these changes are for the better or for the worse.

Legal Frameworks for Child with Disabilities

Legal Frameworks for Child with Disabilities Outline the legal and regulatory requirements in place for children with disabilities or specific requirements. Every child has the right to be treated fairly no matter what their disabilities/circumstances are. It is against the law for Schools to treat a child discouragingly because of discrimination. Direct discrimination is when you actively discriminate against a child ie refusing a chid into the setting because of a disability/condition. Indirect discrimination occurs when practises are in place but they dont take into account the needs of the child ie signs/labels in a different language so the child can read them. There is also discrimination due to disabilities ie a Teacher may stop a child from doing an activity because of time (it will take the child too long to complete the task). This results in fewer opportunities being offered to them to experience and very unfair. There are legal and regulatory requirements that the School must adhere to protect disability and SEN children from discrimination and promote their inclusion: The Equality Act 2010 Provides addition protection from discrimination for children with disabilities. The Act requires children with disabilities receive the same access to public/private services as any other child and for these facilities to make changes to ensure access for all. It promotes equal opportunities/inclusion for all children. The Special Educational Needs (SEN) Code of Practice 2001 Developed to promote practices that value individual needs of children with disabilities and to offer guidance to Schools regarding equality and inclusion. Main purpose is to provide early invention support for children with SEN, to identify their individual needs and provide appropriate support. Main principles of the code are: *Children with SEN should have needs met and normally in mainstream Schools. *Views of the child must be taken into account and Parents must be involved. *SEN children should be offered full access to a broad, balanced and relevant education. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child to promote, protect and ensure the full and equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms by all persons with disabilities, and to promote respect for their inherent dignity. Article 1 Respect for the evolving capacities of children with disabilities and respect for the rights of children with disabilities to preserve their identities. Article 3 Details rights/entitlements to all children regardless of their individual needs/circumstances. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Human rights treaty that confirms the rights of disabled people. Stresses the importance of disabled people being able to enjoy their human rights equally with non-disabled people. It recognises that people with disabilities do face barriers and outlines strategies to reduce barriers and promote their rights. Warnock Report (1978) Introduces term SEN into UK legislation and emphasises the 2 categories of children with SEN 1) children who experience difficulties at School but needs can be met at mainstream level 2)children whose needs are more complex and need specialised educational environments. The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 Makes further provisions against the discrimination of disabilities in Schools. Strengthens the rights of SEN children to be educated in mainstream Schools. Importance of working inclusively with children with disabilities or specific requirements. It is essential that people working with children promote equal opportunities by providing an environment free from discrimination. Inclusion is focusing on the needs of every child and ensuring the right conditions are in place for all to achieve their full potential. Children with SEN should be given the same opportunities as children without SEN/disabilities and feel valued, respected and supported. Our School has created a child focused approach where we focus on and build on their support using each childs strengths, needs and interests. Each child is an individual and must be listened to. This shows respect and they will feel safe and secure in the setting. This ensures that every child is valued as an individual. When planning activities we take into consideration their interests and abilities. We empathy to SEN children by the way we try and understand their feelings and point of view. We try and adapt the activity according to their needs and abilities so they are able to ta ke part with everyone and not be singled out. We involve the children in decision making and actively encourage them in planning their IEPs. We listen to what they need and want so then this helps us provide opportunities for them to be more independent this helps their confidence and self esteem. We believe children who grow up in Schools where all students are valued and seen as equal members will learn to respect and advocate for diversity in the larger community. Disability, Literacy and Inclusive Education for Young Children. Personally I think it is so important for all children to learn and play together and to be treated the same. It builds an understanding and acceptance for all and highlights the fact that children develop skills which enable them to teach one another. Children with disabilities will often make huge improvements in their communication, socialising and functioning skills while developing children will have better attitudes towards others, greater patience, tolerance and self esteem. One of our school mottos is We all belong where we expect all children to work together, making everyone feel welcome and involved and have a positive attitude. This really helps the SEN children feel a sense of belonging and a reduces feeling of isolation. We constantly run weekly sessions reminding the children to look at their attitudes and beliefs and if necessary help them make changes. It does help that all staff members are very positive about inclusion and diversity and are visually pro active in the activities we undertake, displays that we use and resources/materials we offer in the classroom. Benefits of working in partnership with Parents and other professionals. The Childrens Plan published by DCSF in 2007 highlighted the importance of the partnership between Parents and Schools to support children in their learning. It has been proven that Parental involvement has a positive effect on childrens achievement at School. They are able to reinforce learning from School by using play and extra curriculum activities ie practising times tables, listening to their child read, drawing, painting and visiting libraries and places of interest. They also help improve the childs gross/fine motor skills, communication/listening and social skills. Parental involvement in childrens education from an early age has a significant effect on educational achievement and continues to do so into adolescence and adulthood. The Impact of Parental Involvement on Childrens Education. Parents must always be consulted and involved in the care and support of their child. Schools need to show respect when discussing these delicate matters and always valuing the opinion of the Parents. Schools need to be demonstrating inclusion of all children and a way they can show this is by seeking the advice and resources of external agencies when it may benefit the child. The SEN Code of Practice recognises the value of the partnership with Parents. It is a well known fact that Parents knowledge of their child is exemplary and must be taken into account when deciding on support/education. The child and their needs must be at the centre of all discussions. Parents will have more of an idea of the childs strengths and the support can be tailored to take these into account ie if the child likes singing then perhaps learning can be adapted to singing times tables and alphabet songs. Some SEN like dyslexia may run in the family so family members may have developed specialised knowledge of the condition this may aid in the planning of support for their child. Some Parents find the whole process of having a SEN child very complex, difficult and emotional. Schools need to respect these feelings and emotions of the Parents and value their support. Full discussions and advise must be given to instil trust and confidence that the best is being done for their child at that School. Parents must be aware of all the policies/procedures of the School, support available for their child and any relevant documentation regarding their child. Trust will then be given as the Parents will respect the School and all involved in the care of their child. Schools must remain professional at all times. They should provide time and opportunity to discuss the childs progress. The Parent will feel involved and empowered that their opinions are listened to. Each party should acknowledge each others views and opinions but be able to agree amicably on a plan to support the child. Schools must be flexible when planning meetings with dates/times as they may be dealing with working families or families with siblings. It is a requirement that all Schools have a SENCO a designated person who is responsible for co-ordinating the care and support needed for the SEN children. This is helpful for the Parents as they only need to liaise with one member of staff. Other professionals that the SEN children may come into contact whilst at School are: Physiotherapists, Speech and Language, OutReach (Autistic), Hearing Impaired and Educational Psychologists. How practitioners can adapt their existing practice to support children with disabilities or specific requirements. Care must be taken to make the environment of the setting to be accessible for all children to use regardless of their needs. This may require ramps to be installed or disabled toilets to be fitted. The environment must be well lit, visually attractive, tactile and attractive. Space in the classrooms should be maximised to allow all children to have a sense of freedom. Grounds of the setting should be well maintained and be clear from any hazards which may endanger the children. Resources and activities should be adapted so all children are able to access them ie sand trays at waist height instead of being situated at floor level. SEN childrens needs should be thought of at the planning process with differentiation of activities not to challenging as they will loose interest and not too easy as they will not be fully engaged. They need to be planned to meet the individual needs of the child and age/stage appropriate. All children should have accessibility to the same resources. Some children may require specialist resources ie colour overlays for dyslexic children, flashcards, ICT programs designed to support phonics ie word shark, specialist interventions and 1-1 support. Attitudes of the adults working with SEN children need to be of a positive and understanding nature. Full training should be offered to these members of staff in new policies and procedures. Regular training in specialised areas should take place and involvement of all staff on the needs of certain SEN children. The SENCO must keep up to date with equal opportunities and inclusion policies and hold briefing sessions. Staff need to be available to support children who need assistance in simple personal issues ie dressing/undressing and medical conditions ie diabetics. Consideration needs to take place to help the children become more independent and to try things by themselves ie putting Velcro on dressing up costumes so all children can access the activity. Some children find it challenging to express their feelings, needs and preferences. Our staff who work with SEN children wear feeling flashcards on our lanyards so children can point to a picture to tell us how they are feeling. In Reception we use visual aids to help children decide what activity they would like to do/ show their preferences. We try and encourage independency through the use of computers word processing and dictaphones record their thoughts for the Big Write to help support them in their activities. Teachers try and keep their classroom setup the same so children learn where to find things and helps the SEN children establish routine and a safe/comfortable environment. Resources are clearly labelled with words/pictures and stored in the same location. Schools must be in regular contact with Parents at home supplying them with updates on process and new polices/procedures that affect their child. They must always liaise with outside agencies drawing on their expertise and advise in their particular areas. References The Impact of Parental Involvement on Childrens Education www.education.gov.uk/publications. Article 1 and Article 3 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Disability, Literacy and Inclusive Education for Young Children www.uni.edu/inclusion/benefits_of_inclusion.htm. Abbreviations SENSpecial Educational Needs IEPIndividual Education Plan

The Franciscan Order; A Victim of its own Success Essay -- essays rese

The Franciscan movement was a religious order that arose out of one man’s ideologies and beliefs. St. Francis of Assisi’s ideals of absolute poverty, obedience, humility, and simplicity were uncomplicated and basic, but during his life and even shortly after his death these ideologies were gradually shifting and causing a great amount of debate. The immense size of the Franciscan Order combined with the mass amount of popularity that the Order gained made changes in the ideology and objectives of Francis’ messages and teaching almost an inevitable necessity. Some could argue that in many ways the Franciscan Order’s original ideologies were a victim of the movement’s success. This is evident in the main rules of the Order, what the rules were initially like during the life of Francis, and what they became after his death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Saint Francis of Assisi was born in 1182 into a wealth family. His father was Peter Bernardone, a wealthy cloth merchant. Throughout Francis’ childhood he experienced many of the physical pleasures in life; however, gradually he began to have visions from the divine. The first vision appeared when he was fighting with knights against Assisi’s enemies, the second during a night of merriment and celebration, and a third when he was praying at the ruined Church of San Damiano. During the latter vision, Francis heard a voice coming from the crucifix telling him to rebuild the Church. Francis sold many of his father’s assets and gave the money to San Damiano, but his father was unimpressed. Francis publicly denounced his father, striping naked and throwing his clothes at his father, saying that his only father from that point on was the divine. For a time Francis wandered unsure of what to do, until he had his fourth divine vision on February 28, 1206. He realized that his true mission in life was the imitation of the life of Christ. Francis took to begging, and wandering from town to town, caring for those less fortunate than himself, and taking only what was necessary for his survival. After a time, Francis accumulated a small number of followers and soon realized that some rules would have to be formulated to govern his order. On April 6th 1209 the order began when Francis said, â€Å"He that will come after me, let him deny himself†¦This, my brothers, is our life and rule and that of all those who shall wish to join... ... and also made the Order increasingly difficult to govern. This difficulty in governance often forced the Order to turn to the Pope for guidance, thus creating a dangerous reliance on the Pope and making the order submissive to a potentially oppressive and dogmatic power. Likewise, the popularity of the movement contributed to its size. The more popular the Order was the more people joined it. The popularity also contributed to the relaxing of the standards of poverty, humility and simplicity. Money and gifts were given to the Order, jobs with a degree of power and prestige were offered to members of the Order by the Pope, and many other circumstances. The Order itself had become a worldly institution rather than a wandering group of poor friars as Francis had intended. With such undermining of the original ideals and objectives of St. Francis, a split in the Order seems almost inevitable. Final Word Count: 2971  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sources/ Works Cited Burr, D. Olivi and Franciscan Poverty: The Usus Pauper Controversy. Philadelphia; University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. Moorman, J. A History of the Franciscan Order. UK; Oxford University Press, 1968.